Al-Razi, (full name
Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi)
(ابو بکر الرازی), also
known as "Zakaria al-Razi" in
Arabic; or in
Latin as Rhazes and
Rasis. According to
al-Biruni born in
Rayy,
Iran in the year 251AH/865AD
and died in
Rayy,
Iran 313AH/925AD.
Colophon of al-Razi's
Book of Medicine
Razi was a versatile
Persian
philosopher who made
fundamental and enduring
contributions to the fields of
medicine,
alchemy, and
philosophy, recorded in over
184 books and articles in various
fields of science. He was well
versed in
Greek medical knowledge and
added substantially to it from his
own observations. As an alchemist,
Razi is credited with the
discovery of
sulfuric acid, the "work
horse" of modern
chemistry and
chemical engineering. He also
discovered
ethanol and its refinement and
use in
medicine. He was
unquestionably one of the greatest
thinkers in Islam, and had an
enormous influence on European
science and medicine.
Razi was a pure
rationalist, extremely
confident of the power of reason;
he was widely regarded by his
contemporaries and biographers as
liberal and free from any kind of
prejudice, very bold and daring in
expressing his ideas without a
qualm. He believed in man,
progress and in "God the Wise".
He traveled in many lands and
rendered service to several
princes and rulers especially to
Baghdad where he had his lab.
As a teacher in Medicine he
attracted a great amount of
students of all diciplines and was
said to be compassionate, kind,
upright, and devoted to the
service of his patients, whether
rich or poor.
In
Persian and
Arabic, Razi means
"from the city of
Rayy (also spelled RAY, REY,
or RAI, old Persian RAGHA, Latin
RHAGAE) formerly one of the great
cities of World)", an ancient town
on the southern slopes of the
Elburz Range that skirts the south
of the Caspian Sea, situated near
Tehran,
Iran. In this city (like
Avicenna) he accomplished most
of his work.
In his early life he could have
been a jeweller (Baihaqi), a
money-changer (Cf.
ibn abi Usaibi'ah) but more likely
a lute-player who changed his
interest in music to alchemy( Cf.
ibn Juljul, Sa'id, ibn Khallikan,
Usaibi'ah, al-Safadi). At the age
of thirty (Safadi says after
forty) he stopped his study of
alchemy because its experiments
caused an eye-disease (Cf. al-Biruni),
obliging him to search for
physicians and medicine to cure
it. al-Birflni, Baihaqi and
others, say this was the reason
why he began his medical studies.
He was very studious working night
and day. His teacher was 'Ali ibn
Rabban al-Tabari (Cf. al-Qifti,
Usaibi'ah), a physician and
philosopher born in Merv about
192/808 (d. approx. 240/855). Al-Razi
studied medicine and probably also
philosophy with ibn Rabban al-Tabari.
Therefore his interest in
spiritual philosophy can be traced
to this master, whose father was a
Rabbinist versed in the
Scriptures. According to
Prof.Hamed Abdel-reheem Ead,
Professor of Chemistry at the
Faculty of Science, University of
Cairo (Cf. the Alchemy
Website): " (...) Al-Razi took up
the study of medicine after his
first visit to Baghdad, when he
was at least 30 years old, under
the well-known physician Ali ibn
Sahl (a Jewish convert to Islam,
belonging to the famous medical
school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania.
He showed such a skill in the
subject that he quickly surpassed
his master, and wrote no fewer
than a hundred medical books. He
also composed 33 treatises on
natural science (not including
alchemy),mathematics and astronomy
(...)."
Al-Razi became famous in his
native city as a physician. He
became Director of the hospital of
Rayy (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti,
ibn abi Usaibi'ah), during the
reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn
Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of
Rayy from 290-296/902-908 on
behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn
Isma'il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian
ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb
al-'Mansurito Mansur ibn Ishaq
ibn Ahmad , which was verified in
a handwritten manuscript of
hisbook. This was refuted by ibn
al-Nadim', but al-Qifti and ibn
abi Usaibi'ah confirmed that the
named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn
Isma'il who died in 365/975. al-Razi
moved from Rayy to Baghdad during
Caliph Muktafi's reign
(approx.289/901-295/907) where he
again held a position as Chief
Director of a hospital.
After al-Muktafi's death
(295/907) al-Razi allegedly
returned to Rayy where he gathered
many students around him. As ibn
al-Nadim relates in Fihrist,
al-Razi was then a [[Shaikh]]
(title given to one entitled to
teach) "with a big head similar to
a sack", surrounded by several
circles of students. When someone
arrived with a scientific
question, this question was passed
on to students of the 'first
circle'. if they did not know the
answer, it was passed on to those
of the 'second crcle'... and so on
and on, until at last, when all
others had failed to supply an
answer, it came to al-Razi
himself. We know of at least one
of these students who became a
physician. Al-Razi was a very
generous man, with a humane
behavior towards his patients, and
acting charitable to the poor, He
used to give them full treatment
without charging any fee, nor
demanding any other payment. When
he was not occupied with pupils or
patients he was always writing and
studying. This fact might have
been the cause for the gradual
weakening of his sight which
finally resulted in becoming blind
in both eyes. Some say the cause
of his blindness was that he used
to eat too many broad beans (baqilah).
His eye affliction started with
cataracts and ended in total
blindness. The rumor goes that he
refused to be treated for
cataract, declaring that he "had
seen so much of the world that he
was tired of it." However, this
seems to be an anecdote more than
a historical fact. One of his
pupils from Tabaristan came to
look after him, but, according to
al-Biruni, he refused to be
treated proclaiming it was useless
as his hour of death was
approaching. Some days later he
died in Rayy, on the 5th of
Sha'ban 313/27th of October 925.
We already mentioned that Razi
studied medicine under 'Ali ibn
Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim
indicates that he studied
philosophy under al-Balkhi, who
had travelled much and possessed
great knowledge of philosophy and
ancient sciences. Some even say
that al-Razi attributed some of
al-Balkhi's books on philosophy to
himself. We know nothing about
this man called al-Balkhi, not
even his full name.
Razi's opponents, on the
contrary, are well-known. They are
the following:
1. Abu al-Qasim al-Balki, chief
of the Mu'tazilah of
Baghdad (d. 319/931), a
contemporary of al-Razi who wrote
many refutations about al-Razi's
books, especially in his Ilm
al-Ilahi. His disagreements
with al-Razi entailed his thoughts
on the concept of 'Time'.
2. Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi,
with whom al-Razi had many
controversies; one of these was on
the concept of 'Pleasure',
expounded in his Tafdll
Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu
Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani
quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah.
Al-Balkhi died prior to 329/940.
3. Abu Hatim al-Razi became the
most important of all his
opponents (d. 322/933-934) and was
one of the greatest Isma'ili
missionaries. He published his
controversies with al-Razi in his
book A'lam al-Nubuwwah.
Because of this book, al-Razi's
thoughts on Prophets and Religion
are preserved for us.
4. Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly
being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar,
says Kraus) was a physician and he
too had some disputes with al-Razi,
which is documented by abu Hatim
al-Razi in A'lam al-Nubuwwah.
Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with al-Razi's
book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but
al-Razi counteracted this. In
fact, al-Razi wrote two
antitheses:
(a) First refutation of al-Tammar's
disagreement with Misma'i
concerning 'Matter'.
(b) Second refutation of al-Tammar's
opinion of 'the Atmosphere of
subterranean habitations'.
5.Following are authors as
described by al-Razi in his
writings:
(a) al-Misma'i, a Mutakallim,
who opposed 'materialists',
counteracted byan al-Razi's
treatise.
(b) Jarir, a physician who had
a theory about 'The eating of
black mulberries after consuming
water-melon'.
(c) al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi,
to whom al-Razi wrote two epistles
with commentaries.
(d) al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim:
al-Razi wrote a book on about his
Theory of the Imam.
(e) Mansur ibn Talhah, being
the author of the book "Being",
which was critized by al-Razi.
(f) Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa'ili
whose opposition against
alchemists was disputed by al-Razi.
6. Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi
(d. 286/899), was an older
contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi
disagreed with him on the question
of 'bitter taste'. He moreover
opposed his teacher Ya'qub ibn
Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his
writings,in which he discredited
alchemists.
We could add more names to
this list of all people
opposed by al-Razi,
specifically the Mu'tazilah
and different Mutakallimin.
As chief physician of the
Baghdad hospital Razi
formulated the first known
description of
smallpox:
"Smallpox appears when blood
'boils' and is infected,
resulting in vapours being
expelled. Thus juvenile blood
(which looks like wet extracts
appearing on the skin) is being
transformed into richer blood,
having the color of mature wine.
At this stage, smallpox shows up
essentially as 'bubbles found in
wine' -(as blisters)- ... this
disease can also occur at other
times -(meaning: not only during
childhood)-. The best thing to
do during this first stage is to
keep away from it, otherwise
this disease might turn into an
epidemic."
This diagnosis is acknowledged
by the
Encyclopaedia Britannica
(1911), which states: "The most
trustworthy statements as to the
early existence of the disease are
found in an account by the
9th-century Arabian (=Persian)
physician Rhazes, by whom its
symptoms were clearly described,
its pathology explained by a
humoral or fermentation theory,
and directions given for its
treatment.".
Razi's book: al-Judari wa
al-Hasbah was the first book
describing smallpox, and was
translated more than a dozen times
into
Latin and other European
languages. Its lack of dogmatism
and its
Hippocratic reliance on
clinical observation shows Razi's
medical methods. We quote:
"The eruption of smallpox is
preceded by a continued fever,
pain in the back, itching in the
nose and nightmares during sleep.
These are the more acute symptoms
of its approach together with a
noticeable pain in the back
accompanied by fever and an
itching felt by the patient all
over his body. A swelling of the
face appears, which comes and
goes, and one notices an overall
inflammatory color noticeable as a
strong redness on both cheeks and
around both eyes. One experiences
a heaviness of the whole body and
great restlessness, which
expresses itself as a lot of
stretching and yawning. There is a
pain in the throat and chest and
one finds it difficult to breath
and cough. Additional symtomps
are: dryness of breath, thick
spittle, hoarseness of the voice,
pain and heaviness of the head,
restlessness, nausea and anxiety.
(Note the difference:
restlessness, nausea and anxiety
occur more frequently with
'measles' than with smallpox. At
the other hand, pain in the back
is more apparent with smallpox
than with measles). Altogether one
experiences heat over the whole
body, one has an inflamed colon
and one shows an overall shining
redness, with a very pronounced
redness of the gums."
Razi was the first physician to
diagnose smallpox and
measles and the first one to
distinguish the difference between
them.
Razi is also known for having
discovered 'allergic asthma', and
was the first physician ever to
write articles on
allergy and
immunology. In the
Sense of Smelling he
explains the occurrence of 'rhinitis'
after smelling a rose during the
Spring: Article on the Reason
Why Abou Zayd Balkhi Suffers from
Rhinitis When Smelling Roses in
Spring. In this article he
dicusses seasonal 'rhinitis',
which is the same as allergic
asthma or
hay fever. Razi was the first
to realize that
fever is a natural defense
mechanism, the body's way of
fighting disease.
Rhazes contributed in many ways
to the early practice of
pharmacy by compiling texts,
in which he introduces the use of
'
mercurial ointments' and his
development of apparatus such as
mortars, flasks, spatulas and
phials, which were used in
pharmacies until the early
twentieth century.
On a professional level, Razi
introduced many practical,
progressive, medical and
psychological ideas. He attacked
charlatans and fake doctors
who roamed the cities and
countryside selling their
nostrums and 'cures'. At the
same time, he warned that even
highly educated doctors did not
have the answers to all medical
problems and could not cure all
sicknesses or heal every disease,
which was humanly speaking
impossible. To become more useful
in their services and truer to
their calling, Razi advised
practitioners to keep up with
advanced knowledge by continually
studying medical books and
exposing themselves to new
information. He made a distinction
between curable and incurable
diseases. Pertaining to the
latter, he commented that in the
case of advanced cases of
cancer and
leprosy the physician should
not be blamed when he could not
cure them. To add a humorous note,
Razi felt great pity for
physicians who took care for the
well being of
princes,
nobility, and women, because
they did not obey the doctor's
orders to restrict their diet or
get medical treatment, thus making
it most difficult being their
physician.
This monumental medical
encyclopedia in nine
volumes — known in Europe also
as The Large Comprehensive
or Continens Liber —
contains considerations and
criticism on the Greek
philosophers
Aristotle and
Plato, and expresses
innovative views on many
subjects. Because of this book
alone, many scholars consider
Razi the greatest medical
doctor of the
Middle Ages.
The al-Hawi is not
a formal medical encyclopaedia,
but a posthumous compilation
of Razi's working notebooks,
which included knowledge
gathered from other books as
well as original observations
on diseases and therapies,
based on his own clinical
experience. It is significant
since it contains a celebrated
monograph on smallpox, the
earliest one known. It was
translated into Latin in 1279
by
Faraj ben Salim, a
physician of Sicilian-Jewish
origin employed by
Charles of Anjou, and
after which it had a
considerable influence in
Europe.
A medical advisor for
the general public (Man
la Yahduruhu Tab)
Razi was possibly the
first Persian doctor to
deliberately write a home
Medical Manual (remedial)
directed at the general
public. He dedicated it to the
poor, the traveler, and the
ordinary citizen who could
consult it for treatment of
common ailments when a doctor
was not available. This book,
of course, is of special
interest to the history of
pharmacy since similar books
were very popular until the
20th century.Razi described in
its 36 chapters,diets and drug
components that can be found
in either an apothecary, a
market place, in well-equipped
kitchens, or and in military
camps. Thus, every intelligent
person could follow its
instructions and prepare the
proper recipes with good
results.
Some of the illnesses
treated were headaches, colds,
coughing, melancholy and
diseases of the eye, ear, and
stomach. For example,he
prescribed for a feverish
headache: " 2 parts of duhn
(oily extract) of
rose, to be mixed with 1
part of vinegar, in which a
piece of
linen cloth is dipped and
compressed on the
forehead". He recommended as a
laxative, " 7
drams of dried
violet flowers with 20
pears,
macerated and well mixed,
then strained. Add to this
filtrate, 20 drams of
sugar for a drink. In
cases of melancholy, he
invariably recommended
prescriptions, which included
either
poppies or its juice (opium),
clover fodder (Curcuma
epithymum) or both. For an
eye-remedy, he advised
myrrh,
saffron, and
frankincense, 2 drams
each, to be mixed with 1 dram
of
yellow arsenic formed into
tablets. Each tablet was
to be dissolved in a
sufficient quantity of
coriander water and used
as eye drops.
Doubts About Galen
(Shukuk 'ala alinusor)
Rhazes's independent mind
is strikingly revealed in this
book and G. Stolyarov II
quotes:
"In the manner of
numerous Greek thinkers,
including
Socrates and Aristotle,
Rhazes rejected the
mind-body dichotomy and
pioneered the concept of
mental health and
self-esteem as being
essential to a patient's
welfare. This "sound mind,
healthy body" connection
prompted him to frequently
communicate with his
patients on a friendly
level, encouraging them to
heed his advice as a path to
their recovery and
bolstering their fortitude
and determination to resist
the illness and resulting in
a speedy convalescence."
In his book Doubts
about Galen, Razi rejects
several claims made by the
Greek physician, as far as the
alleged superiority of the
Greek language and many of his
cosmological and medical
views. He links medicine with
philosophy,and states that
sound practice demands
independent thinking. He
reports that Galen's
descriptions do not agree with
his own clinical observations
regarding the run of a fever.
And in some cases he finds
that his clinical experience
exceeds Galen's.
He criticized moreover
Galen's theory that the body
possessed four separate "humors"
(liquid substances), whose
balance are the key to health
and a natural
body-temperature. A sure way
to upset such a system was to
insert a liquid with a
different temperature into the
body resulting in an increase
or decrease of bodily heat,
which resembled the
temperature of that particular
fluid. Razi noted particularry
that a warm drink would heat
up the body to a degree much
higher than its own natural
temperature. Thus the drink
would trigger a response from
the body, rather than
transferring only its own
warmth or coldness to it. (Cf.
I. E. Goodman)
This line of criticism
essentially had the
potentiality to destroy
completely Galen's
Theory of Humours
including Aristotele's theory
of the
Four Elements, on which it
was grounded. Razi's own
alchemical experiments
suggested other qualities of
matter, such as "oiliness" and
"sulphurousness", or
inflammability and
salinity, which were not
readily explained by the
traditional fire, water,
earth, and air division of
elements.
Razi's challenge to the
current fundaments of medical
theory were quite
controversial. Many accused
him of ignorance and
arrogance, even though he
repeatedly expressed his
praise and gratitude to Galen
for his commendable
contributions and labors.
saying:
"I prayed to God to
direct and lead me to the
truth in writing this book.
It grieves me to oppose and
criticize the man
Galen from whose sea of
knowledge I have drawn much.
Indeed, he is the Master and
I am the disciple. Although
this reverence and
appreciation will and should
not prevent me from
doubting, as I did, what is
erroneous in his theories. I
imagine and feel deeply in
my heart that Galen has
chosen me to undertake this
task, and if he were alive,
he would have congratulated
me on what I am doing. I say
this because Galen's aim was
to seek and find the truth
and bring light out of
darkness. I wish indeed he
were alive to read what I
have published."
Then, Razi aiming to
vindicate Galen's greatness
and justifing his own
criticism, lists four reasons
why great men make more errors
than lesser ones, due to:
Negligence, as a result
of too much self-confidence.
Being unmindful
(indifference) which often
leads to errors.
Temptation to follow up
on one's own thoughts or
impetuosity, being convinced
of that what one says or
does is correct.
Crystallization of
ancient knowledge, and the
refusal to accept the fact
that new data and ideas
indicate that present day
knowledge ultimately might
surpass that of previous
generations.
Razi believed that
contemporary scientists and
scholars are by far better
equipped, more knowledgeable,
and more competent than the
ancient ones, due to the
accumulated knowledge at their
disposal. Razi's attempt to
overthrow blind acceptance of
the unchallenged authority of
ancient Sages, encouraged and
stimulated research and
advances in the arts,
technology, and sciences.
This is a partial list of
Razi's books and articles in
medicine, according to
Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books
may have been copied or printed
under different names.
al-Hawi, al-Hawi
al-Kabir. Also known as
The Virtuous Life,
Continens Liber. The large
medical Encyclopedia containing
mostly recipes and Razi's
notebooks.
Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki,
An Introduction to Medical
Science.
Dar Amadi bar Elmeh
Pezeshki
Rade Manaategha 'tibb
jahez
Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
The Experimentation of
Medical Science and its
Application
Guidance
Kenash
The Classification of
Diseases
Royal Medicine
For One Without a Doctor
The Book of Simple
Medicine
The Great Book of
Krabadin
The Little Book of
Krabadin
The Book of Taj or
The Book of the Crown
The Book of Disasters
Food and its Harmfulness
al-Judari wa al-Hasbah,
The Book of Smallpox and
Measles
Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh
Sangrizeh (Stones in the
Kidney and Bladder)
Razi's interest in alchemy and
his strong belief in the
possibility of
transmutation of lesser metals
to
silver and
gold was attested half a
century after his death by
Ibn an-Nadim's book (The
Philosophers Stone-Lapis
Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim
attributed a series of twelve
books to al-Razi, plus an
additional seven, including his
refutation to
al-Kindi's denial of the
validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi
(801-873 BCE) had been appointed
by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum
founder of Baghdad, to 'the House
of Wisdom' in that city, he was a
philosopher and an opponent of
alchemy.
Finally we will mention Razi's two
best-known alchemical texts, which
largely superseded his earlier
ones: al-Asrar ("The
Secrets"), and Sirr al-Asrar
("The Secret of Secrets"), which
incorporates much of the previous
work.
Apparently Razi's
contemporaries believed that he
had obtained the secret of turning
iron and
copper into
gold. Biographer
Khosro Moetazed reports in
Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a
certain
General Simjur confronted Razi
in public, and asked whether that
was the underlying reason for his
willingness to treat patients
without a fee. "It appeared to
those present that Razi was
reluctant to answer; he looked
sideways at the general and
replied":
"I understand alchemy and I
have been working on the
characteristic properties of
metals for an extended time.
However, it still has not turned
out to be evident to me, how one
can transmute gold from copper.
Despite the research from the
ancient scientists done over the
past centuries, there has been
no answer. I very much doubt if
it is possible..."
Razi developed several chemical
instruments that remain in use to
this day. He is known to have
perfected methods of
distillation and
extraction, which have led to
his discovery of
sulfuric acid (by dry
distillation of
vitriol, (al-zajat) and
alcohol. These discoveries
paved the way for other Islamic
alchemists, such as the discovery
of various other
mineral acids by
Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as
Geber in Europe).
Razi dismissed the idea of potions
and dispensed with magic, meaning
the reliance on symbols as causes.
Although Razi does not reject the
idea that miracles exist, in the
sense of unexplained phenomena in
nature, his alchemical stockroom
was enriched with products of
Persian mining and manufacturing,
even with
sal ammoniac a Chinese
discovery. He relied predominantly
on the concept of 'dominant' forms
or essences, which is the
Neoplatonic conception of
causality rather than an
intellectual approach or a
mechanical one. Razi's alchemy
brings forward such empiric
qualities as salinity and
inflammability -the latter
associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'.
These properties are not readily
explained by the traditional
composition of the elements such
as : fire, water, earth and air,
as
al-óhazali and others after
him were quick to note, influenced
by critical thoughts such as Razi
had.
al-Razi's achievements are of
exceptional importance in the
history of chemistry, since in his
books we find for the first time a
systematic classification of
carefully observed and verified
facts regarding chemical
substances, reactions and
apparatus, described in a language
almost entirely free from
mysticism and ambiguity. Razi's
scheme of classification of the
substances used in chemistry shows
sound research on his part.
The Secret (Al-Asrar)
This book was written in
response to a request from
Razi's close friend,
colleague, and former student,
Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of
Bukhara, a Muslim
mathematician,
philosopher, a highly
reputable
natural scientist.
In his book Sirr al-Asrar,
Razi divides the subject of
"Matter' into three categories
as he did in his previous book
al-Asrar.
Knowledge and
identification of drug
components of plant-,
animal- and mineral-origin
and the description of the
best type of each for
utilization in treatment.
Knowledge of equipment
and tools of interest to and
used by either alchemist or
apothecary.
This last category
contains additionally a
description of other methods
and applications used in
transmutation:
* The added mixture and use of
solvent vehicles.
* The amount of heat (fire)
used, 'bodies and stones',
('al-ajsad' and 'al-ahjar)
that can or cannot be
transmuted into corporal
substances such of metals and
Id salts ('al-amlah').
* The use of a liquid mordant
which quickly and permanently
colors lesser metals for more
lucrative sale and profit.
Similar to the commentary
on the 8th century text on
amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan
(Jabir), Razi gives methods
and procedures of coloring a
silver object to imitate gold
(gold
leafing) and the reverse
technique of removing its
color back to silver.
Gilding and
silvering of other metals
(alum, calcium salts, iron,
copper, and tutty) are also
described, as well as how
colors will last for years
without tarnishing or
changing. Behind these
procedures one does not find a
deceptive motive rather a
technical and economic
deliberation. This becomes
evident from the author's
quotation of market prices and
the expressed triumph of
artisan, craftsman or
alchemist declaring the
results of their efforts "to
make it look exactly like
gold!". However, another
motive was involved, namely,
to manufacture something
resembling gold to be sold
quickly so to help a good
friend who happened to be in
need of money fast. Could it
be Razi's alchemical technique
of silvering and gilding
metals which convinced many
Muslim biographers that he was
first a jeweler before he
turned to the study of
alchemy?
Of great interest in the
text is Razi's classification
of
minerals into six
divisions, showing his
discussion a modern chemical
connotation:
Thirteen STONES : (AL-AHJAR)
Pyrites
marcasite (marqashita),
magnesia,
malachite,
tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya),
talcum,
lapis lazuli,
gypsum, azurite,
magnesia , haematite (iron
oxide), arsenic oxide, mica
and asbestos and
glass (then identified
as made of sand and alkali
of which the transparent
crystal
Damascene is considered
the best),
Seven VIRIOLS (AL-ZAJAT) :
alum(ak-shubub),
and white (qalqadzs),
black , red, and yellow (qulqutar)
vitriols (the impure
sulfates of iron, copper,
etc.), green (qalqand).
Eleven SALTS (AL-AMLAH):
including brine, common
(table)
salt,
ashes,
naphtha, live
lime, and
urine,
rock, and
sea salts. Then he
separately defines and
describes each of these
substances and their top
choice, best colors and
various adulterations.
Razi gives also a list of
apparatus used in alchemy This
consists of 2 classes:
Instruments used for the
dissolving and melting of
metals such as the
Blacksmith's hearth,
bellows, crucible, thongs
(tongue or ladle),
macerator, stirring rod,
cutter, grinder (pesstle),
file, shears, descensory and
semi-cylindrical iron mould.
Utensils used to carry
out the proces of
transmutation and various
parts of the distilling
apparatus: the retort,
alembic, shallow iron pan,
potters kiln and
blowers,large oven,
cylindrical stove, glass
cups, flasks, phials,
beakers, glass
funnel,crucible, alundel,
heating lamps, mortar,
cauldron, hair-cloth, sand-
and water-bath, sieve, flat
stone mortar and
chafing-dish.
Secret of Secrets
(Sirr Al-asrar)
This is Razi's most famous
book which has gained a lot of
recognition in the West. Here
he gives systematic attention
to basic chemical operations
important to the history of
pharmacy.
Razi believed that a competent
physician must also be a
philosopher well versed in the
fundamental questions regarding
existence:
"He proclaimed the
absolutism of
Euclidean
space and
mechanical time as the
natural foundation of the world
in which men lived, but resolved
the dilemma of existent
infinities by synthesizing this
outlook with the atomic theory
of
Democritus, which recognized
that matter existed in the form
of indivisible and fathomable
quanta. The continuity of
space, however, holds due to the
existence of
void, or a region lacking
matter... This is remarkably
close to the systems yielded by
the discoveries of such later
European scientists as
John Dalton and
Max Planck, as well as the
observational and theoretical
works of modern astronomer
Halton Arp and Objectivist
philosopher
Michael Miller. Progress, in
the view of all these men, is
not to be obstructed by a jumble
of haphazard and contradictory
relativistic assertions which
result in metaphysical
hodge-podge instead of a sturdy
intellectual base. Even in
regard to the task of the
philosopher, Rhazes considered
it to be progressing beyond the
level of one's teachers,
expanding the accuracy and scope
of one's doctrine, and
individually elevating oneself
onto a higher intellectual
plane." (G. Stolyarov II)
Razi is known to have been a
free-thinking
Islamic philosopher, since he
was well-trained in ancient
Greek sciences although his
approach to chemistry was rather
naturalistic.Moreover he was well
versed in the theory of music, as
so many other Islamic scientists
of that time.
His ideas on metaphysics were
also based on the works of the
great Greeks:
"The metaphysical
doctrine of al-Razi, insofar
as it can be reconstructed,
derives from his concept of the
five eternal
principles. God, for him,
does not 'create' the world from
nothing but rather arranges a
universe out of pre-existing
principles. His account of the
soul features a mythic origin of
the world in which God out of
pity fashions a physical
playground for the soul in
response to its own desires; the
soul, once fallen into the new
realm God has made for it,
requires God's further gift of
intellect in order to find its
way once more to
salvation and
freedom. In this scheme,
intellect does not appear as a
separate principle but is rather
a later grace of God to the
soul; the soul becomes
intelligent, possessed of reason
and therefore able to discern
the relative value of the other
four principles. Whereas the
five principles are eternal,
intellect as such is apparently
not. Such a doctrine of
intellect is sharply at odds
with that of all of Razi's
philosophical contemporaries,
who are in general either
adherents of some form of
Neoplatonism or of
Aristotelianism. The remaining
three principles,
space, matter and
time, serve as the
non-animate components of the
natural world. Space is defined
by the relationship between the
individual
particles of
matter, or
atoms, and the void that
surrounds them. The greater the
density of material atoms, the
heavier and more solid the
resulting object; conversely,
the larger the portion of void,
the lighter and less solid. Time
and matter have both an
absolute, unqualified form and a
limited form. Thus there is an
absolute matter - pure extent -
that does not depend in any way
on place, just as there is a
time, in this sense, that is not
defined or limited by
motion. The absolute time of
al-Razi is, like
matter,
infinite; it thus transcends
the time which Aristotle
confined to the measurement of
motion. Razi, in the cases of
both time and matter, knew well
how he differed from Aristotle
and also fully accepted and
intended the consequences
inherent in his anti-Peripatetic
positions." (Paul E. Walker)
It is quite evident that most
of his thoughts were derived from
the
Islam, which is demonstrated
clearly in his book: The
Metaphysics.
"(...) In short, while I am
writing the present book, I have
written so far around 200 books
and articles on different
aspects of science, philosophy,
theology, and [[hekmat]]
(wisdom). (...) I never entered
the service of any king as a
military man or a man of office,
and if I ever did have a
conversation with a king, it
never went beyond my medical
responsibility and advice. (...)
Those who have seen me know,
that I did not into excess with
eating, drinking or acting the
wrong way. As to my interest in
science, people know perfectly
well and must have witnessed how
I have devoted all my life to
science since my youth. My
patience and diligence in the
pursuit of science has been such
that on one special issue
specifically I have written
20,000 pages (in small print),
moreover I spent fifteen years
of my life -night and day-
writing the big collection
entitled Al Hawi. It was
during this time that I lost my
eyesight, my hand became
paralyzed, with the result that
I am now deprived of reading and
writing. Nonetheless, I've never
given up, but kept on reading
and writing with the help of
others. I could make concessions
with my opponents and admit some
shortcomings, but I am most
curious what they have to say
about my scientific achievement.
If they consider my approach
incorrect, they could present
their views and state their
points clearly, so that I may
study them, and if I determined
their views to be right, I would
admit it. However, if I
disagreed, I would discuss the
matter to prove my standpoint.
If this is not the case, and
they merely disagree with my
approach and way of life, I
would appreciate they only use
my written knowledge and stop
interferring with my behaviour."
"In the "Philosophical
Biography", as seen above,
he defended his personal and
philosophical life style. In
this work he laid out a
framework based on the idea that
there is life after death full
of happiness, not suffering.
Rather than being
self-indulgent, man should
persue knowledge, utilise his
intellect and apply justice in
his life.
According to Al-Razi: "This is
what our merciful Creator wants.
The One to whom we pray for
reward and whose punishment we
fear."
In brief, man should be kind,
gentle and just. Al-Razi
believed that there is a close
relationship between spiritual
integrity and physical health.
He did not implicate that the
soul could avoid distress due to
his fear of death. He simply
states that this psychological
state cannot be avoided
completely unless the individual
is convinced that, after death,
the soul will lead a better
life. This requires a thorough
study of esoteric doctrines
and/or religions. He focuses on
the opinion of some people who
think that the soul perishes
when the body dies. Death is
inevitable, therefore one should
not pre-occupy the mind with it,
because any person who
continuously thinks about death
will become distressed and think
as if he is dying when he
continuously ponders on that
subject. Therefore, he should
forget about it in order to
avoid upsetting himself. When
contemplating his destiny after
death, a benevolent and good man
who acts according to the
ordinances of the Islamic
Shari`ah, has afterall
nothing to fear because it
indicates that he will have
comfort and permanent bliss in
the Hereafter. The one who
doubts the Shari`ah, may
contemplate it, and if he
dilligently does this, he will
not deviate from the right path.
If he falls short, Allah will
excuse him and forgive his sins
because it is not demanded of
him to do something which he
cannot achieve." (Dr. Muhammad
Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)
Let your first thought be
to strengthen your natural
vitality.
Truth in medicine is an
unattainable goal, and the art
as described in books is far
beneath the knowledge of an
experienced and thoughtful
physician.
Asked if a philosopher can
follow a prophetically revealed
religion, al-Razi frankly replies:
How can anyone think
philosophically while listening
to old wives' tales founded on
contradictions, which obdurate
ignorance, and dogmatism?
Gentility of character,
friendliness and purity of mind,
are found in those who are
capable of thinking profoundly
on abstruse matters and
scientific minutiae.
Man should hasten to
protect himself from love before
succumbing to it and cleanse his
soul from it when he falls.
The self-admirer,
generally, should not glorify
himself nor be so conceited that
he elevates himself above his
counterparts. Neither should he
belittle himself to such an
extent that he becomes inferior
to his own peers or to those who
are inferior both to him and to
his fellowmen in the eyes of
others. If he follows this
advice, he will be freed from
self-admiration and feelings of
inferiority, and people will
call him one who truly knows
himself.
When questioned on the subject
of 'envy', Razi answers:
It results from an
accumulation of stinginess and
avarice in the soul, being one
of the diseases that cause
serious harm to the soul.
"Rhazes was the greatest
physician of Islam and the
Medieval Ages." – George
Sarton
"Rhazes remained up to
the 17th century the
indisputable authority of
medicine." – The Islamic
Encyclopaedia
"His writings on smallpox
and measles show originality and
accuracy, and his essay on
infectious diseases was the
first scientific treatise on the
subject." – The Bulletin of
the World Health Organization
(May 1970)
"In today's world we tend
to see scientific advance as the
product of great movements,
massive grant-funded projects,
and larger-than-life
socio-economic forces. It is
easy to forget, therefore, that
many contributions stemmed from
the individual efforts of
scholars like Rhazes. Indeed,
pharmacy can trace much of its
historical foundations to the
singular achievements of this
ninth-century Persian scholar."
— Michael E. Flannery
I recommend all to refer
to this book: It is the only
edition of al-Razi's
philosophical books and
fragments still extant, Paul
Kraus work: Abi Bakr
Mohammadi Filii Zachariae
Raghensis or Opera
Philosophica, fragmentaque
quae superssunt. Collegit
et edidit Paulus Kraus.Pars
Prior. Cahirae MCMXXXIX.
Only the first volume was
published since P. Kraus' suicide
prevented the publication of the
second volume for which he already
had gathered a great amount of
material. This material was
transferred, after his death, to
the Institut Francais
d'Archeologie Orientale, in Cairo,
it still remains to be published.
Walker, P. "The Political
Implications of al-Razi's
Philosophy", in C. Butterworth
(ed.) The Political Aspects
of Islamic Philosophy,
Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 61-94.(1992)
Motazed, K. Mohammad
Zakaria Razi
Stolyarov II, H. "Rhazes:
The Thinking Western Physician",
in: The Rational Argumentator,
Issue VI.(2002)
[1]
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Gamil Bek, Uqud al-Jauliar,
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Abdurrahman Badawi, Min Tarlkh
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Hirschberg,Geschichte der
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E. G.Browne, Arabian Medicine,
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M. Meyerhof, Legacy of Islam,
pp. 323 et seq.
F. Wustenfeld, Geschichte der
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L. Leelerc, Histoire de la
medicine arabe, Paris, 1876,
Vol. I, pp. 337-54.
H. P. J. Renaud, A propos du
millenaire de Razes, in
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1931, pp. 203 et seq.
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See Brockelmann for the
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(second edition), Suppl., Vol. I,
pp. 418-21. Cf. Paul Kraus:
Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii
Zachariae Raghensis, Opera
Philosophica, fragmentaque quae
superssunt. Collegit et edidit
Paulus Kraus. Pars Prior. Cahirae
MCMXXXIX.
